Glossary

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- A -

Action language is the user's action (e.g., input data, query, etc.) in communication.
Ad hoc reports reports are issued in reply to a request, in contrast with periodical reports.
 
An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure to achieve a solution (the closest solution).
 
American National Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) is a standard for encoding alphanumeric symbols into bits, made common with personal computers.
 
Analog signals are continuous waves that ``carry'' information by altering the characteristics of the waves.
 
Analysis graphics provide the ability to convert previously analyzed data, such as statistical data, into graphic formats like bar charts, line charts, pie charts, and scatter diagrams.
 
The analytic engine was designed by Charles Babbage as an advanced mechanical calculator, the forerunner of the modern computer, but never built due to the poor manufacturing capabilities in the 1840s.
 
Application controls are designed to protect specific applications.
 
An application program is a set of computer instructions written in a programming language, the purpose of which is to provide functionality to a user.
 
Application systems (see application program).
 
An arithmetic/logic unit (ALU) performs all arithmetic and logic comparison operations for a central processing unit.
 
Artificial intelligence (AI) is a subfield of computer science concerned with symbolic reasoning and problem solving.
 
Artificial neural network (ANN) is a computer technology attempting to build computers that will operate like a human brain. The machines possess simultaneous data storage and work with ambiguous information.
 
An assembler is a systems software program that translates an assembly language program into machine language.
 
Assembly language is a low-level language but slightly more user-oriented than machine language, representing machine language instructions and data locations in primary storage using mnemonics which people can more easily use.
 
In an asynchronous transmission, only one character is transmitted or received at a time, with each character preceded by a start bit and ended with a stop bit that let the receiving device know where a character begins and ends.
 
An attribute is column or field of data about an entity.
 
An audit is a regular examination or check of systems, their inputs, outputs, and processing.
 
An audit trail lists all changes made to a file for checking or control purposes.
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- B -

A backup is a copy of software or data.
 
Backward error correction (BEC) entails going ``back'' to the sender and requesting retransmission of the entire data stream or a particular part if it can be identified.
 
Bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies available in any communication channel; in general, the higher the bandwidth, the more information can be transmitted simultaneously.
 
Bar code scanners read or scan bar codes, including Universal Product Codes (UPCs), on merchandise and transmit the data to a computer.
 
BASIC (Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) is a popular programming language on millions of personal computers, including Visual BASIC.
 
Batch processing processes inputs at fixed intervals as a file and operates on it all at once; interactive (or on-line) processing operates on a transaction as soon as it occurs.
 
A bit (or binary digit) is the smallest unit processed in a computer; numerically, a 1 or a 0.
 
A black box is a common term for a device known for its input and output but not how it performs a function internally.
 
Break-even analysis indicates when an original investment is recouped by additional revenue.
 
A bus is a channel or ``highway'' through which information is passed in an electronic form.
 
In a bus topology, nodes are arranged along a single length of cable that can be extended at the ends.
 
Business alliances are different forms of cooperation between two or more business partners (e.g., joint venture).
 
Business functions are functional areas such as accounting, finance, manufacturing and marketing.
 
Business logic directs system execution and entails four elements: encoded algorithms, encoded business rules and logic, structured and encoded processing sequences, and parsed and delineated activity systems.
 
A business process is a collection of activities that take one or more kind of inputs and create an output.
 
Business process reengineering (BPR) is a methodology for introducing a fundamental change in specific business processes, usually supported by an information system.
 
Business systems planning (BSP) concentrates on identifying problems and related decisions, based on business processes and data classes.
 
A byte is a number of bits used to represent one alphanumeric character; commonly eight bits in most computers.
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- C -

C is a high-level procedural language that is considered more transportable than other languages; a C program written for one type of computer can generally be run on another type of computer with little or no modification.

C++ is an extension of the programming language C.

Cache memory is temporary, very fast, digital storage for a central processor.

CD-ROM (compact disc-read only memory) is a secondary digital storage medium that uses laser-made pits in plastic to represent bits.

Cellular radio technology is a radio-based communications system using defined geographic service areas with each area then subdivided into hexagonal cells.

A central processing unit (CPU) is the ``brains'' of a computer - controlling all computational, input, output, and storage activities.

Centralized computing puts all processing and control authority within one computer to which all other computing devices respond.

A centralized database has all related files in one physical location.

Channel systems is a network of the materials and product distribution system within an organization, and between the organization and its suppliers and customers.

Chargeout systems treat the MIS function as a service bureau or utility charging organizational subunits for providing MIS services with the objective of recovering (or partially recovering) MIS expenditures.

A Chief Information Officer (CIO) is the director of the IS department in large, organization, analogous to a CEO, COO, or CFO.

A circuit switched network is composed of shared, analog channels used mainly for low-speed, intermittent transmissions used by many parties one at a time.

An object's class defines all the messages to which the object will respond, as well as the way the objects of this class are implemented.

Client/server architecture is a type of distributed architecture where end-user PC's (clients) request services or data from designated processors or peripherals (servers).

A computer processing unit clock provides a steady electronic pulse which all other units can use to stay in syncopation.

COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language) is a high-level language developed for the business community to make its instructions approximate the way they would be expressed in natural English.

Code inspection is the final stage of quality assurance prior to actually testing a system, when a program is inspected line-by-line to see if everything seems correct in terms of syntax and correct coding in the particular language.

A code of ethics is a group of ethical behavior rules developed by organizations or by a professional society.

Common carriers are businesses that supply high-speed voice and data communication services.

Communications software allows computers to exchange data over circuits.

Competitive advantage is an advantage over a competitor such as lower cost or quicker deliveries.

The competitive forces model is a business framework depicting the five forces in a market (e.g., bargaining power of customers).

Competitive strategy focuses on general corporate strategy concerning the new competitors, existing competitors, substitute products, buyers, and suppliers.

A compiler translates a high-level language program to object code.

Complex instruction set computer (CISC) is a computer that uses a complete set of instructions that can be used to direct the CPU.

A computer is an electronic device capable of storing and manipulating data and instructions.

Computer-aided design (CAD) software allows designers to design and ``build'' production prototypes in software, ``test'' them as a computer object under given parameters, compile parts and quantity lists, outline production and assembly procedures, and then transmit the final design directly to milling and rolling machines.

Computer-aided engineering (CAE) enables engineers to execute complex engineering analysis on a computer.

Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) software uses a digital design such as that from a CAD system to directly control production machinery.

Computer architecture is the arrangement of computer components and their relationships.

Computer crime is using a computer to steal, embezzle, or defraud.

Computer graphics present data in two or virtual three-dimensional form such as bar charts, histograms, pie charts, or grids on a display screen or plotter to highlight data variations.

Computer integrated manufacturing (CIM) software is embedded within each automated production machine to produce a product.

A computer system is composed of hardware (physical equipment, media, and attached devices), software (coding that manipulates the hardware), procedures, personnel, and data.

Contingency management is a management concept that claims that there is no best way to manage; rather, the best management approach is contigent on the situation or characteristics of an organization.

The control unit interprets and carries out instructions contained in computer programs, and controls input and output devices and the data transfer processes from and to memory.

Conversion is the process of changing from an old system to a new system.

Cooperative processing teams two or more geographically dispersed computers to execute a specific task.

Cost justification involves demonstrating that savings or revenues generated by the new system more than offset the costs of developing it.

Cost leadership is the ability of a company to produce quality products at the lowest cost in its industry group.

Critical success factors (CSF) are those few things that must go right in order to ensure the organization's survival and success.

Cross-functional systems are organizational units that cross functional lines; instead of being specialized, they are generalists units that can complete an entire process.

Cross-functional teams (see cross-functional systems).

Customer-oriented (or customer-focused) organizations treat customers as their first priority; everything else is derived from customers.

Customer resource life cycle (CRLC) concentrates on the relationship to the customer as the key to achieving strategic advantage.

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Data are raw facts that can be processed into accurate and relevant information.

Data communications is the process of exchanging data or information electronically.

Data confidentiality makes sure that data are protected and accessible only to authorized people.

A data definition language is used to define the link between the logical and physical views of a database.

A data dictionary is a comprehensive list or collection of information, usually arranged alphabetically, giving the form, function, meaning, and syntax of the data in a database.

Data encryption is encoding data so that they cannot be understood unless they are decoded; used to protect data from unauthorized users.

A data-flow diagram (DFD) uses symbols to show the flow of data in an organization and data relationships for analysis or as a design tool.

Data inconsistency is data redundancy without data consistency.

Data independence allows data fields to be added, changed, and deleted from a database without necessarily affecting existing application programs.

Data integrity is the accuracy and accessibility of data.

The data manipulation language provides users with the ability to retrieve, sort, display, and delete the contents of their databases.

Data redundancy is information that is duplicated within a system.

Data repositories contain information about a system that can be used, for example, by CASE tools.

Data tampering is deliberately entering false data, or changing and deleting true data.

A database is a collection of files serving as a data resource for computer-based information systems.

A database administrator is someone responsible for ensuring that a database fulfills users' business needs - functionality and from the data itself.

A database management system (DBMS) is a software program (or group of programs) that manages and provides access to a database.

Debugging is correcting system malfunctions.

Decentralized computing breaks centralized computing into functionally equal parts with each part essentially a smaller, centralized subsystem.

A decision center generally consists of a decision maker, decision procedures, and an activity for which decisions must be made.

A decision room is an arrangement for a group DSS in which terminals are available to some or all participants.

A decision support system (DSS) is a computer-based information system that combines models and data in an attempt to solve semistructured problems with extensive user involvement.

A decision system provides the framework for determining what information is required.

A decision table is a simple matrix containing columns and rows that are used to define decision relationships.

Decision trees are graphical aids to chart decision choices with conditions.

Dehumanization is making people operate more like machines, instead of making machines operate more like people.

The Delphi method is a qualitative forecasting methodology using anonymous questionnaires in several iterations to find consensus.

Demodulation is the conversion of data from analog to digital format.

A design overview consists of a peer evaluation of the designer's overall approach to software development concerning one or more programs in an information system.

Desktop publishing uses sophisticated word processing software for textual output that resembles professional typesetting.

A dialog system is hardware and software that provides a user interface.

The difference engine was a mechanical device devised by Charles Babbage in 1812 to perform numeric calculations.

Differentiation (of product or service) is a strategy of gaining competitive advantage by providing a product (or service) of the same cost and quality as a competitor, but with some additional attribute(s), that makes it different from the competition.

Digital signals are discrete on--off pulses that convey information in terms of 1s and 0s - just like the central processing unit in computers.

Direct cut-over is a system implementation strategy of completely shutting down an old system and then completely starting up the new system.

A disaster avoidance plan is a comprehensive plan to avoid a controllable catastrophe in the corporate information systems.

A disaster recovery plan is a plan to operate an IS area after a disaster (such as an earthquake) and to restore the functioning of the systems.

A diskette or floppy disk is a relatively soft, plastic platter coated with ferric material for storing data as magnetized spots.

Distributed computing breaks centralized computing into many, semi-autonomous computers that may not be (and usually aren't) functionally equal.

A distributed database has complete copies of a database, or portions of a database, in more than one location.

Downsizing an application is rehosting or reengineering a mainframe application to mini- or microcomputers.

Drill-down is the ability to investigate information in increasing detail; e.g., find not only total sales, but also sales by region, by product, or by saleperson.

A DSS generator is a computer software package that provides the capabilities to quickly build a specific DSS.

DSS tools are software utilities that facilitate DSS development.

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- E -

Economic order quantity (EOQ) is a basic formula to predict the quantity of an item to order to maintain a given inventory level under specified deplenishment rates.

An electrically erasable PROM (EEPROM) is a semiconductor memory device that can be altered in the field by applying electrical pulses.

Electronic bulletin boards are public-access electronic mail message centers where authorized people can leave messages for everyone to read (e.g., interest groups in Internet).

Electronic data interchange (EDI) is a computer-to-computer direct communication of standard business transactions between or among business partners.

An electronic form is a paperless form that appears on a computer's screen and is filled in electronically by a user.

Electronic funds transfer (EFT) is the transmission of funds, debits and credits, and charges and payments electronically between banks and their customers.

Electronic mail (e-mail) is computer-based messages that can be electronically manipulated, stored, combined with other information, and exchanged with other computers.

Empowerment is providing employees with sufficient resources and authority to make the necessary decisions to accomplish tasks.

Encapsulation is the term used to describe the fact that an object contains all the data and operations necessary to carry out some action.

End-user computing is the use or development of information systems by the principal users of the systems' outputs or by their staffs.

Ends/Means Analysis (E/M Analysis) determines information requirements based on desired ends (effectiveness) and available means (efficiency) to achieve the ends.

Enterprise-wide systems (or enterprise computing) are information systems that are used throughout a company or enterprise.

Entity-attribute analysis is the process of defining information categories from the cross-functional interviews based on entities and their information attributes.

The environment (of a system) are elements that lie outside a system but have an impact on the system's performance.

An erasable PROM (EPROM) is a semiconductor memory device that can be programmed and erased using ultraviolet light.

Entities are people, places, or things about which we want to collect, store, and maintain information.

Ergonomics is the science of adapting machines and work environments to people.

Executive information systems (EIS) are specifically designed to support executive work.

An executive support system (ESS) is an executive information system that includes some analytical and communication capabilities.

An expert support system is an expert system that supports problem solving and decision making.

An expert system (ES) is a computer system that applies reasoning methodologies or knowledge in a specific domain to render advice or recommendations - much like a human expert.

Expertise is the set of capabilities that underlies the performance of human experts, including extensive domain knowledge, heuristic rules that simplify and improve approaches to problem solving, metaknowledge and metacognition, and compiled forms of behavior that afford great economy in skilled performance.

Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC) is a standard scheme for encoding alphanumeric characters into bits; most common on mainframes.

An external database is a database wholly outside the organization but accessible via communications.

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- F -

Fault-tolerance is the ability to continue operating satisfactorily in the presence of faults.

A feasibility study seeks an overview of a problem and a rough assessment of whether feasible solutions exist prior to committing resources.

Feedback is information flowing from an outcome (or result) to the decision maker controlling a system or process.

Fiber optic cables consist of thousands of very thin filaments of glass fibers which can conduct light pulses generated by lasers at transmission frequencies that approach the speed of light.

A field is a unique type of information or characteristic about an entity.

A file is a group of data with some form of commonality.

Flattened organizations have a reduced managerial staff or fewer levels of management, and a larger span of control.

A flowchart uses symbols and arrows to show processes - the steps and their precise order for receiving, storing, using, and transmitting data.

FORTRAN (Formula Translator) is an algebraic, formula-type procedural language developed primarily to meet typical scientific processing requirements.

Forward error correction (FEC) uses knowledge about a message stream and mathematical algorithms to allow a receiver to correct received data streams without having to go back to a sender.

Four-stage model of planning is a generic information systems planning model based on four major, generic activities: strategic planning, information requirements analysis, resource allocation, and project planning.

Fourth-generation languages (4GL) are nonprocedural programming languages that allow users and professional programmers to specify the results they want and let the computer determine the sequence of instructions that will accomplish those results.

Frames are a knowledge representation scheme that associates one or more features with an object.

A front-end processor is a specialized computer that manages all routine communications with peripheral devices.

Full-duplex transmission uses two circuits for communications - one for each direction simultaneously.

Functional information systems serve a particular functional area (such as marketing or manufacturing information systems).

Future perfect is a concept based on the premise that technology will get perfect and that, therefore, companies should develop a business vision of perfection based on giving customers what they want anytime, anyplace, anywhere.

Fuzzy logic is a way of reasoning that can cope with uncertain or partial information; a characteristic of human thinking and some expert systems.

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- G -

A Gantt chart is a planning technique that, like PERT, graphically provides a list of tasks to be performed and when they are to start and finish - but do not show sequential dependencies.

General controls are physical, access, communication, administrative, and data security controls aimed at protecting a system in general rather than specific applications.

A general ledger is the entire group of accounts maintained by an organization.

Geographical information systems use spatial data such as digitized maps, and can combine this data with other text, graphics, icons, and symbols.

Global business drivers are entities that benefit from global economies of scale and add value to a global business strategy.

Goal-seeking (analysis) is asking what values certain variables must have in order to attain desired goals.

A graphical user interface (GUI) is an interactive, user- friendly interface in which icons and similar graphical devices enable a user to control a computer.

A group DSS (GDSS) is an interactive, computer-based system that facilitates finding solutions to semistructured problems by using a set of decision makers working together as a group.

Group support systems (GSS) support the working of groups (e.g., communication and decision making).

Groupthink is a situation where people think alike and new ideas are not tolerated.

Groupware is a generic term for several computerized technologies and methods that aim to support the work of people working in groups.

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- H -

Hackers are people who illegally or unethically access a computer system.

A half-duplex transmission uses only one circuit but it is used in both directions - one direction at a time.

Handwriting recognition is the ability to recognize letters and numbers written by hand.

Hardcopy documents are more-or-less permanent documents on media other than electrical based, usually on paper with ink.

A hard disk is a hard, metal platter coated with a material that can be magnetized in spots to represent bits, primarily for secondary storage.

Hardware is the physical equipment, media, and attached devices used in a computer system.

Heuristic design or prototyping is an approach to systems development that exploits advanced technologies for using trial-and-error problem solving.

The hierarchical model relates data by structuring data into an inverted ``tree'' in which records refer to a senior field and any number of subordinate fields (i.e., one ``parent'' and several ``children'').

A hierarchical organization is a traditional multilevel structure, like a military command, with each level supervising the level below it.

Hypermedia combines several types of media such as text, graphics, audio, and video linked by association.

Hypertext is textual data that is linked with other, related textual data.

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- I -

Icons are pictures of features or functions that can be graphically ``selected'' for execution.

Image processing systems receive, store, manage, and distribute images.

An image technology receives images of documents, stores them, and retrieves them when needed.

An index is an ordered listing of certain fields to aid a DBMS in locating particular records quickly.

Indexed sequential access method is a combination or compromise between indexed blocks of data arranged sequentially within each block.

Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) is the most common system architecture, based on a 16-bit central processor and a 16-bit bus.

An inference engine is the part of an expert system that performs a reasoning function.

Information is data that are processed or operated on by a computer.

An information architecture is a conceptualization of the manner by which information requirements are met by the system.

Information centers train and support business users with end-user tools, testing, technical support information, and standard certification.

An information infrastructure is the physical arrangement of hardware, software, databases, networks, and so forth.

Information requirements are those items of information needed by information systems users for decision making.

An information system is a physical process that supports an object system by providing information to achieve organizational goals.

The information superhighway is a national information infrastructure to interconnect computer users.

Information systems controls are used to counter computer hazards (such as crime and human errors).

Information technology (IT) is the technology component of an information system, or the collection of the entire systems in an organization.

Information technology architecture is the field of study and practice devoted to understanding and deploying information systems components in the form of an organizational infrastructure.

An information warehouse is a decision-support tool for collecting information from multiple sources and making that information available to end users in a consolidated, consistent manner.

Infrared communications uses red light below what is commonly visible to humans, but light nonetheless that can be modulated or pulsed for conveying information.

Inheritance is a feature of objects where subclasses inherit the behaviors and attributes defined by its superclass as well as any additional behaviors and attributes of its own.

An input device is a computer system component that accepts data from the user (e.g., a keyboard or mouse).

Inputs are the resources introduced into a system for transformation into outputs.

An input/output (I/O) device transfers data into or out of a computer.

An instruction set is a set of instructions a CPU can execute.

Integrated CASE tools support prototyping and reusable systems components, including component repositories and automatic computer code generation.

Integrated circuits are interconnected layers of etched semiconductor materials forming electronic transistor circuit units with ``on--off'' positions that direct the electrical current passing through them.

Integrative tests examine all of the programs together as a system.

Intelligent agents are expert or knowledge-based systems embedded in computer- based information systems (or their components).

Intelligence support systems are intelligent systems designed to support knowledge workers.

Intelligent systems include a knowledge component, such as an expert system or neural network.

Interactive software allows a user to alter the sequence or flow of information.

Interfaces interact with a user, accepting commands and displaying the results generated by other portions of the computer system.

The internal IS structure is the organizational structure of an IS department.

Internet is a self-regulated network of computer networks connecting over 25,000 networks with over 2.5 million computers and 25 million users.

An interpreter is a compiler that translates and executes one source program statement at a time.

IT outsourcing is using outside vendors to create, maintain, or reengineer IT architectures and systems.

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- J -

A job is a unit of work within a program.

A job control language (JCL) is a special computer language that allows a systems professional to communicate with the operating system.

Joint application design (JAD) is a process to determine information requirements from team interviews of managers as a group process.

A joystick is a hand-grip device used to position a cursor.

Just-in-time (JIT) is a concept in which material and parts arrive at a work place when needed, minimizing inventory, waste, and interruptions.

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- K -

A key is a symbol or group of symbols used to reference other, related data.

Key performance indicators (KPI) are specific measures of the critical success factors in an executive information system.

Knowledge is the understanding, awareness, or familiarity acquired through education or experience.

Knowledge acquisition extracts and formulates knowledge derived from various sources, especially from experts.

A knowledge base is a collection of facts, rules, and procedures organized into schemas.

Knowledge engineering (KE) captures human knowledge and places it into a computer system where it is used to solve complex problems normally requiring a high level of human expertise.

Knowledge representation is a formalism for representing facts and rules in a computer about a subject or a specialty.

Knowledge workers are people who use knowledge as a significant part of their work responsibility.

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- L -

Laser printers are nonimpact printers that produce high-quality printed output.

A layered approach to systems development is based upon the concept of an information systems development process as the continued unfolding of successive details concerning different layers of hardware and software technology in the information system.

Legacy systems are older systems that have become central to business operations and may be still capable of meeting these business needs; they may not require any immediate changes, or they may be in need of reengineering to meet new business needs.

A light pen is a special input device using a light-sensing mechanism to detect and send signals to a computer; typically used for selecting items from a computer-screen menu.

A local area network (LAN) is a system for interconnecting two or more closely located communicating devices supporting full connectivity so that every user device on the network has the potential to communicate with any other device.

The logical view, or user's view, of a database represents data in a format that is meaningful to a user and to the software programs that process that data.

Long-range planning is a corporate or IT plan for five years or longer.

Loosely coupled toolsets are independent tools, developed by different tool vendors, to support one or more information systems architecture layers.

Lotus Notes is a commercial workflow and groupware software package that also provides application developers an environment for quickly creating cross- platform client/server applications.

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- M -

Machine language is the internal representation of instructions and data in binary format for direct processing by a central processing unit.

A macro, from the Greek meaning ``large,'' refers to a single instruction or formula that combines a number of other simpler instructions.

Magnetic tape is a plastic ribbon coated on one side with an iron-oxide material that can be magnetized by electromagnetic pulses for storing data.

Mainframe computers are relatively large computers built to handle very large databases, thousands of user terminals with fast response times, and millions of transactions.

Management information systems (MIS) are designed to provide past, present, and future routine information appropriate for planning, organizing, and controlling the operations of a functional area in an organization.

Management support systems (MSS) are three major IT technologies designed to support managers: decision support systems, executive support systems, and groupware technologies.

Master-slave network architectures consist of a master (or ``host'') computer that controls all computer processing and all work performed by ``slave'' devices.

A master file is the main collection of records relating to a specific application area.

Menu interaction allows users to conduct a dialogue with a computer by using menus.

A method (in an object-oriented model) is an operation, action, or a behavior an object may undergo.

Metaknowledge is knowledge about knowledge; knowledge in an expert system about how the system operates or reasons.

Microcomputers are the smallest and least expensive category of general-purpose computers; also known as micros and personal computers.

Microwave systems are used to transmit very high-frequency radio signals in a line-of-sight path between relay stations spaced approximately 30 miles apart (due to the earth's curvature).

Middleware is systems software that can translate client requests into a form that certain servers can better understand, translate server response into a form clients can better understand, monitor system performance, and can aid developers by providing an intermediary ``layer'' between application programs and system software.

Milestones, or checkpoints, are established to allow periodic review of progress so that management can determine if a project merits further commitment of resources, if it requires adjustments, or if it should be discontinued.

A minicomputer is a relatively smaller, cheaper, and more compact computer that performs the same functions as a larger, mainframe computer, but to a more limited extent.

MIPS is an acronym for millions of instructions per second; used for measuring computer processing power.

Mission central operations are the routine, core operations of a business, such as receiving orders and fulfilling them.

A model base is a collection of preprogrammed quantitative models (e.g., statistical, financial, optimal) organized as a single unit.

A model base management system (MBMS) is a software program to establish, update, and use a model base.

A modem is a device that modulates and demodulates signals.

Modulation is the conversion of data from digital to analog format.

A mouse is a handheld device with one or more selection buttons used to move a cursor on a computer screen and make selections.

Multimedia is the combination of at least two media for input or output of data; these media can be audio (sound), voice, animation, video, text, graphics, and/or images.

A multiplexor is an electronic device that allows a single communications channel to simultaneously carry data transmissions from many sources.

Multiprocessing involves more than one processor within a computer for processing more than one program simultaneously.

Multiprogramming involves two or more application modules or programs placed into main memory at the same time, but executed one at a time (i.e., concurrently).

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- N -

A natural language interface lets a user retrieve data with simple, human languagelike (e.g., English) commands.

A natural language processor (NLP) is an knowledge-based user interface that allows the user to carry on a conversation with a computer-based system in much the same way as he or she would converse with another human.

A network is a telecommunications system that permits the sharing of resources such as computing power, software, input/output devices, and data.

The network layer identifies the interaction points between the network and the other layers of a system.

The network model creates relationships among data through a linked-list structure in which subordinated records can be linked to more than one parent.

A node is a device on a network with the ability to exchange control and data transmissions with other nodes on the network.

A nonprocedural language is a high-level language that allows the programmer to specify the desired result without having to specify the detailed procedures needed for achieving the result; also called a fourth- generation language.

Normalization is a method for analyzing and reducing a relational database to its most parsimonious or streamlined form for minimum redundancy and maximum data integrity - as well as best processing performance.

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- O -

An object is similar to an entity in that it is the embodiment of a person, place, or thing.

Object-oriented development is based on interchangeable software components (objects) that model the behavior of persons, places, things, or concepts in the real world.

An object-oriented model consists of objects, attributes (characteristics that describe the state of that object), and methods (an operation, action, or a behavior the object may take on).

Object-oriented programming (OOP) models a system as a set of cooperating objects.

An object program is the set of instructions produced after translating a source program into machine language.

An object system is a physical process whose purpose is to achieve one or more organizational goals.

Office automation systems (OAS) are used to increase the productivity of office workers and the quality of office work.

On-line data entry inputs data directly to and is immediately used by a computer.

An open system is a computer system that permits the use of a wide range of software and hardware by many vendors.

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) standard is a seven-layer protocol using peer-to-peer communications at each layer for well-defined functions.

Operating system software supervises the overall operation of a computer, including such tasks as monitoring the computer's status, handling executable program interruptions, and scheduling of operations.

Opportunistic surveillance continually seeks opportunities that might be beneficial to the organization.

An optical character reader (OCR) is an input device that scans textual data.

Optical scanners scan text and graphics forms for input to a computer system.

An organizational DSS (ODSS) is a network DSS that serves people at several locations.

Organizational information requirements analysis (OIRA) is a model for information systems planning that ensures various information systems and databases can be integrated to support decision making and operations.

Organization transformation is a radical change in an organization involving structure, culture, and the manner in which business is conducted.

Outputs are the completed products or services of a system.

An output device is the part of a computer system that produces processed data or information.

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In a packet switched network, data are broken into groups (called packets) of characters to which control information has been added at the beginning and the end of the group for transmission over various circuits, for reassembly at the final destination.

Parallel conversion is a process of converting from one information system to a newer system by using both systems concurrently until the new system is demonstrably stable and reliable.

Parallel processing is executing several processing instructions at the same time (in parallel) rather than one at a time (serial or sequential processing).

Parity bits are character or control codes that are like check-sums that are verified at the receiving end of a transmission to determine whether bits were lost during the transmission.

Pascal is a high-level procedural language, named after the French mathematician Blase Pascal, with power, flexibility, and a self-documenting structure that makes it an attractive choice for academic, business, and scientific applications.

Peer-to-peer network relationships stress processing on an equal basis among all processors, sharing devices and data on a mutual basis.

A pen-based system is a small computer that can accept input from a stylus or pen; commonly used for filling out forms or taking notes.

Periodic reports are routine reports executed at predetermined times (in contrast with ad hoc reports).

Personal information manager (PIM) is a software package for a manager's personal use combining the features of project management software and desktop organizers.

Program evaluation and review technique (PERT) is a planning and control tool representing the network of tasks in diagram form required to complete a project, establishing sequential dependencies and relationships among the tasks.

Phased conversion is switching from an old system to a new system in phases throughout an organization.

The physical view of a database deals with the actual, physical arrangement and location of data in the direct access storage devices.

Pilot conversion is switching from an old system to a complete, new system in parts of an organization, one part at a time.

A plotter is a printing device that produces high-quality line drawings by moving either pens or electrostatic charges over paper.

Pointers link subordinates and parents in the network database model by linking physical storage addresses.

Point-of-sale (POS) terminals are input devices used in retail establishments to enter data when and where a transaction is made.

Portability means that the same software can be run on many different computers.

Presentation graphics, or custom graphics, is a form of documentation that involves the use of pictures that are representative of the objects being portrayed.

The presentation layer arranges and displays data for users and is the most visible and ergonomic aspect of an information system.

Primary activities are the core organizational activities in Michael Porter's value chain model.

A primary key is a record identifier, a field that uniquely identifies a record and thus distinguishes it from all other records in the file.

Primary storage, or main memory, stores data and code for the CPU.

A private branch exchange (PBX) is a privately owned and operated circuit switching device that allows many internal users to share external communications circuits, routes incoming calls, and provides limited internal communications services.

A private line is an analog or digital line that is rented exclusively to one customer for voice or data communications.

Problem-solving (or project) teams are created for a specific purpose (e.g., solve a problem) and then disbanded.

Procedural languages require a programmer to specify, step by step, exactly how the computer must accomplish a task.

Production rules are knowledge formalized into ``rules'' containing an IF part and a THEN part.

Productivity is the ratio of outputs (results) to inputs (resources utilized).

Programming languages are the basic building blocks for all software, allowing people to tell computers what to do and the means by which systems are developed.

Project planning is the fourth stage of the model for information systems planning, providing an overall framework with which the system development life cycle can be planned, scheduled, and controlled.

Process innovation is an approach in business process reengineering by which radical changes are made through innovations.

A computer processor is a device that processes inputs into outputs.

A programmable ROM (PROM) is a semiconductor memory device that can be programmed once (and only once).

A project proposal for management is the product of the final stage of a successful feasibility study.

A project team is assigned project responsibility for system development, often under the resource requirements section of a project proposal.

A communications protocol is a set of rules or limits in langauge usage and flows of speech in order to ensure some level of mutual understanding.

Prototyping is an approach to systems development that exploits advanced technologies for using trial-and-error problem solving.

Pull-down menus are submenus that appear when one selects a certain item in a higher level menu.

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Quality circles are groups of employees whose objective is to increase quality in their work area by solving problems jointly and introducing change.

Query-By-Example (QBE) allows users to choose easily which table(s) to ask questions of, select the fields to be included in the answer, and then enter an example of the data wanted.

A query language is a programming language provided as part of a DBMS for easy access to the data in the database.

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The three R's of reengineering are redesign, retool, and reorchestrate.

Random-access memory (RAM) is digital storage or memory that can be directly written to and read.

Reaction surveillance involves addressing problems as they arise - a management by exception approach.

Read-only memory (ROM) is digital storage or memory that can be read directly.

In the real-time business processing system, controls and information processing must be synchronized with an actual occurrence of events.

With real-time processing, there is no perceived delay between sending an inquiry and receiving a response.

Records are subsets of data about an entity; an instance or occurrence of an entity.

Reduced instruction set computer (RISC) is a CPU based on a very small set of instructions ``hard-wired'' into the CPU, while less frequently used instructions are kept in software.

Reengineering is the introduction of fundamental and radical changes to a process; the complete restructuring of an existing system.

Registers are specialized, high-speed memory areas for storing temporary results of ALU operations as well as for storing certain control information.

The relational model is based on the concept of tables to capitalize on the concept of having simple rows and columns of data.

Relations are tables of entities with corresponding attributes and tuples.

Resource allocation is the third stage of the model for information systems planning, consisting of developing the hardware, software, data communications, facilities, personnel, and financial plans needed to execute the master development plan defined in an OIRA.

Response management is the strategy of responding to competitors or market developments rather than being a leader.

Return on investment (ROI) is the percentage return computed by ROI = net return required investment.

In a ring topology, nodes are arranged along the transmission path so that a signal passes through one station at a time before returning to its originating node; the nodes form a closed circle.

Robotics is the science of using a machine (a robot) to perform manual functions without human intervention.

A rule-based system is a system in which knowledge is represented in terms of rules (e.g., a system based on production rules).

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Secondary storage stores data in a format that is compatible with the data stored in primary storage, but provides space for storing and processing large quantities of software and data for long periods.

Sectors are divisions of storage tracks; addressable concentric rings on magnetic, secondary storage disks used for storing data.

Self-directed teams make their own decisions and have authority (and responsibility) to execute specific tasks.

Sensitivity analysis studies the effect of a change in one or more input variables on a proposed solution.

Semistructured processes involve problems where some, but not all, phases are structured or routine.

Sequential database access starts at the beginning of the database, examining each record in turn until the one sought is found.

A shell is a complete expert system stripped of its specific knowledge.

A simplex data transmission uses one circuit in one direction only.

Smart cards are storage mediums the size of a credit card that contain a microprocessor capable of recording and storing information.

Softcopy documents are on media that is electrical based and easily changed, such as magnetic diskettes or in a computer primary memory.

Software is instructional coding that manipulates the hardware in a computer system.

Software maintenance is all program coding after initial deployment to correct coding errors, enhance the functionality of the software, and perfect the functioning of the software.

A source program is a set of programming instructions written in a user-oriented language.

Specifications provide sufficient documentation to guide the creation of software required to operate a system.

Computer spreadsheet software transforms a computer screen into a ledger sheet, or grid, of coded rows and columns.

Information system stages of growth are six commonly accepted stages that all organizations seem to experience in implementing and managing an information system from conception to maturation.

A star network has a central node that connects to each of the other nodes by a single, point-to-point link.

A steering committee is composed of key managers representing major functional units within the organization to oversee the IS function, to ensure that adequate planning and control processes were present, and to direct IS activities in support of long-range organizational objectives and goals.

Strategic alliances are business alliances among companies that provide strategic benefits to the partners.

Strategic information systems (SIS) are information systems that provide, or help to provide, strategic advantage.

Strategic planning, the first stage of the planning model, aligns IS strategic planning with overall organizational planning by assessing organizational objectives and strategies, setting the IS mission, assessing the environment, and setting IS policies, objectives, and strategies.

Structured processes involve routine and repetitive problems for which standard solutions exist.

Structured query language (SQL) is a common database definition and manipulation language using a simple, textual format.

Supercomputers have the most processing power of computers generally available.

Support activities do not add value directly to a firm's product or service under consideration but support the primary activities that do add value.

The supervisor is a control program that is that part of the operating system and acts as an overall coordinating program.

Switching costs are costs incurred when a company changes a supplier (or other business partner).

Symbolic processing uses symbols, rather than numbers, combined with rules of thumb (or heuristics) to process information and solve problems.

In a synchronous transmission, blocks of characters, preceded by unique bits, are sent over a communications link in a continuous bit stream while data transfer is controlled by a timing signal initiated by the sending device.

A system is a set of elements that acts as a single, goal- oriented entity.

System development refers to the structuring of hardware and software to achieve the effective and efficient processing of information.

System development life cycle (SDLC) is a model for developing a system based on traditional problem solving with sequential steps and options for revisiting steps when problems appear.

A system encyclopedia, in many CASE products, provides a central information repository, the core of which is the data dictionary.

System software is a set of instructions that act as the intermediary between the computer hardware and application programs.

System utilities are programs that have been written to accomplish common tasks such as sorting records or copying disk files onto magnetic tape for backup.

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Telecommunication generally refers to all types of long-distance communication through the use of common carriers, those businesses which supply high speed voice and data communication services.

Time sharing allows a number of users to operate concurrently with the same CPU, with each user commanding the CPU for a certain length of time.

Time to market is the time from the start of the development of a product (idea) until the time when the product is ready to be sold in the market place.

A toolkit is a collection of software tools that automates one type of software task or one phase of the software development process.

A topology is a physical arrangement of communications devices; an architecture.

Total quality management (TQM) is an organization-wide effort to improve quality and make it the responsibility of all employees.

Touch screens enable a user to select entries and choose commands by simply making manual contact with a screen.

Track balls are input pointing and selection devices resembling an inverted ``mouse.''

Tracks are addressable concentric rings on magnetic, secondary storage disks used for storing data.

Transaction files are all the changes made or to be made to a master file.

A transaction processing system processes an organizations basic business transactions such as purchasing, billing, and payroll.

Transistors, also known as solid-state devices or semiconductors, are small, fast, and cheap electronic switches.

A tuple is a row or record of data about an entity.

Turing tests, named after the English mathematician, Alan Turing, are designed to measure the degree of a computer's ``intelligence'' by seeing if a human, by asking questions and reading the answers, can identify whether the correspondent is a human or a computer.

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A unit test is when individual modules or programs are tested independently.

Unstructured processes involve problems none of which is routine or repetitive; they are ``fuzzy,'' complex problems for which there are no cut-and-dried solutions.

Upsizing an application is moving a PC application or reengineering it to a mainframe.

User interfaces facilitate communications between a user (a person) and an information system and may be tailored uniquely for an individual.

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Validation ensures that a system meets documented and approved system requirements established during the design stage.

Value added networks are communications providers that add communications services to existing, common carriers.

Value systems in Michael Porter's value chain model include suppliers, distributors, and buyers (all with their own value chains).

Videoconferencing is a multiple-way, real-time television session.

Virtual corporations may operate from various locations, usually through telecommunications, without a permanent headquarters.

A virtual machine is a computer system that appears to a user as being a real computer but, in fact, has been created by the operating system.

Virtual memory (VM) allows a program to execute as if primary memory were larger than it actually is.

Virtual reality is a pseudo-3D interactive technology which provides a user with a feeling that he or she is physically present in a computer-generated world.

A virus is software that can damage or destroy data or software in a computer.

Voice mail is digitized spoken messages that is stored and transferred electronically to receivers.

Voice recognition is the ability of a computer to understand the meaning of spoken words.

Voice synthesis transforms computer output to voice or audio output.

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Wand readers are handheld optical readers for scanning data.

``What-if'' analysis seeks to determine what the effect will be of changing some of the input data.

A white box is a device whose internal processes are known to a user.

Wide area networks (WANs) are networks that generally span distances greater than one city and include regional networks such as telephone companies or international networks such as global communications services providers.

A word is a logical grouping of bits in memory and for data transmission over the bus.

Word processing software allows a user to manipulate text rather than just calculate and manipulate numbers.

Workflow systems use group support software for scheduling, routing, and monitoring specific tasks throughout an organization.

Workstations are relatively small computers that provide a high level of performance; they are typically based upon a RISC architecture and providing both very high speed calculations and high-resolution color displays.

WORM (write once, read many) is a technology using plastic platters like CD-ROMs that can be written to once and then read or accessed often.

WYSIWYG (what you see is what you get) means that material displayed on a computer screen will look exactly - or almost exactly - as it will look on a printed page.

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