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Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology
Executive Editor: Jacqueline I. Kroschwitz
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Available Online
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A
Ablative Materials
Abrasives
Absorption
Acetaldehyde
Acetal Resins
Acetic Acid and Derivatives
Acetone
Acetylene-Derived Chemicals
Acrolein and Derivatives
Acrylamide
Acrylamide Polymers
Acrylic Acid and Derivatives
Acrylic Ester Polymers
Acrylonitrile
Acrylonitrile Polymers
Actinides and Transactinides
Adhesives
Adipic Acid
Adsorption
Adsorption, Gas Separation
Adsorption, Liquid Separation
Advanced Ceramics
Aeration
Aerogels
Aerosols
Air Conditioning
Air Pollution
Air Pollution Control Methods
Alcohol Fuels
Alcohols, Higher Aliphatic
Alcohols, Polyhydric
Aldehydes
Alkali and Chlorine Products
Alkaloids
Alkanolamines
Alkoxides, Metals
Alkyd Resins
Alkylation
Alkylphenols
Allyl Alcohol and Derivatives
Allyl Monomers and Polymers
Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys
Aluminum and Aluminum Compounds
Amides, Fatty Acid
Amine Oxides
Amines
Amines by Reduction
Amino Acids
Aminophenols
Amino Resins and Plastics
Ammonia
Ammonium Compounds
Amyl Alcohols
Analgesics, Antipyretics, and Antiinflammatory Agents
Analytical Methods
Anesthetics
Anthraquinone
Antiaging Agents
Antiasthmatic Agents
Antibacterial Agents
Antibiotics
Antifreezes and Deicing Fluids
Antimony and Antimony Alloys
Antimony Compounds
Antiobesity Drugs
Antioxidants
Antiozonants
Antiparasitic Agents
Antistatic Agents
Antiviral Agents
Aquaculture
Aquaculture Chemicals
Arsenic and Arsenic Alloys
Arsenic Compounds
Asbestos
Asphalt
Atmospheric Modeling
Automated Instrumentation
Aviation and Other Gas Turbine Fuels
Azine Dyes
Azo Dyes
B
Bakery Processes and Leavening Agents
Barium
Barium Compounds
Barrier Polymers
Batteries
Bearing Materials
Beer
Benzaldehyde
Benzene
Benzoic Acid
Benzyl Alcohol and ß-Phenethyl Alcohol
Beryllium and Beryllium Alloys
Beryllium Compounds
Beverage Spirits, Distilled
Biopolymers
Bioremediation
Biosensors
Bioseparations
Biotechnology
Biphenyl and Terphenyls
Bismuth and Bismuth Alloys
Bismuth Compounds
Bleaching Agents
Blood, Artificial
Blood, Coagulants and Anticoagulants
Boron, Elemental
Boron Compounds
Brake Linings and Clutch Facings
Bromine
Bromine Compounds
BTX Processing
Building Materials
Butadiene
Butyl Alcohols
Butylenes
Butyraldehydes
C
Cadmium and Cadmium Alloys
Cadmium Compounds
Calcium and Calcium Alloys
Calcium Compounds
Caprolactam
Carbamic Acid
Carbides
Carbohydrates
Carbon
Carbon and Graphite Fibers
Carbonated Beverages
Carbon Dioxide
Carbon Disulfide
Carbonic and Carbonochloridic Esters
Carbon Monoxide
Carbonyls
Carboxylic Acids
Cardiovascular Agents
Castor Oil
Catalysis
Catalysis, Phase-transfer
Catalysts
Cell Culture Technology
Cellulose
Cellulose Esters
Cellulose Ethers
Cement
Ceramics
Ceramics as Electrical Materials
Cerium and Cerium Compounds
Cesium and Cesium Compounds
Chelating Agents
Chemicals in War
Chemicals from Brine
Chemometrics
Chemotherapeutics, Anticancer
Chemurgy
Chloramines and Bromamines
Chlorine Oxygen Acids and Salts
Chlorocarbons and Chlorohydrocarbons
Chorohydrins
Chlorophenols
Chlorosulfuric Acid
Chocolate and Cocoa
Choline
Chromatography
Chromium and Chromium Alloys
Chromium Compounds
Chromogenic Materials
Cinnamic Acid, Cinnamaldehyde, and Cinnamyl Alcohol
Citric Acid
Clays
Coal
Coal Conversion Processes
Coated Fabrics
Coating Processes
Coatings
Coatings, Marine
Cobalt and Cobalt Alloys
Cobalt Compounds
Coffee
Colloids
Color
Colorants for Ceramics
Colorants for Food, Drugs, Cosmetics, and Medical Devices
Colorants for Plastics
Color Photography
Color Photography, Instant
Combustion Science and Technology
Composite Materials
Computer-Aided Design and Manufacturing (CAD/CAM)
Computer-Aided Engineering (CAE)
Computer Technology
Contact Lenses
Contraceptives
Controlled Release Technology
Conveying
Coordination Compounds
Copolymers
Copper
Cooper Alloys
Copper Compounds
Copyrights and Trademarks
Corrosion and Corrosion Control
Cosmetics
Cotton
Coumarin
Cryogenics
Crystallization
Cumene
Cyanamides
Cyanides
Cyanine Dyes
Cyanocarbons
Cyanohydrins
Cyanuric and Isocyanuric Acids
Cylcohexanol and Cyclohexanone
Cyclopentadiene and Dicyclopentadiene
D
Dairy Substitutes
Databases
Defoamers
Dental Materials
Dentifrices
Desiccants
Design of Experiments
Detergency
Deuterium and Tritium
Dewatering
Dialysis
Diamines and Higher Amines, Aliphatic
Diatomite
Dicarboxylic Acids
Dietary Fiber
Diffusion Separation Methods
Dimensional Analysis
Dimer Acids
Disinfectants and Antiseptics
Dispersants
Distillation
Distillation, Azeotropic and Extractive
Diuretic Agents
Driers and Metallic Soaps
Drug Delivery Systems
Drying
Drying Oils
Dye Carriers
Dyes and Dye Intermediates
Dyes, Anthraquinone
Dyes, Application and Evaluation
Dyes, Environmental Chemistry
Dyes, Natural
Dyes, Reactive
Dyes, Sensitizing
E
Economic Evaluation
Eggs
Elastomers, Synthetic
Electrical Connectors
Electrically Conductive Polymers
Electroanalytical Techniques
Electrochemical Processing
Electroless Plating
Electronic Materials
Electronics, Coatings
Electrophotography
Electroplating
Electroseparations
Embedding
Emulsions
Enamels, Porcelain or Vitreous
Energy Management
Engineering, Chemical Data Correlation
Engineering Plastics
Environmental Impact
Enzyme Applications
Enzyme Inhibitors
Enzymes in Organic Synthesis
Epinephrine and Norepinephrine
Epoxy Resins
Esterification
Esters, Organic
Ethanol
Ethers
Ethylene
Ethylene Oxide
Evaporation
Exhaust Control, Automotive
Exhaust Control, Industrial
Expectorants, Antitussives, and Related Agents
Expert Systems
Explosives and Propellants
Extraction
Extraterrestrial Materials
F
Fans and Blowers
Fat Replacers
Fats and Fatty Oils
Feeds and Feed Additives
Feedstocks
Fermentation
Ferrites
Ferroelectrics
Fertilizers
Fiber Optics
Fibers
Fillers
Film and Sheeting Materials
Filtration
Fine Art Examination and Conservation
Fine Chemicals
Flame Retardants
Flame Retardants for Textiles
Flavor Characterization
Flavors and Spices
Flocculating Agents
Flotation
Flow Measurement
Fluidization
Fluid Mechanics
Fluorescent Whitening Agents
Fluorine
Fluorine Compounds, Inorganic
Fluorine Compounds, Organic
Foamed Plastics
Foams
Food Additives
Food Packaging
Food Processing
Foods, Nonconventional
Food Toxicants, Naturally Occurring
Forensic Chemistry
Formaldehyde
Formic Acid and Derivatives
Fractionation, Blood
Fracture Mechanics
Friedel-Crafts Reactions
Fruit Juices
Fuel Cells
Fuel Resources
Fuels from Biomass
Fuels from Waste
Fuels, Synthetic
Fungicides, Agricultural
Furan Derivatives
Furnaces, Electric
Furnaces, Fuel-Fired
Fusion Energy
G
Gallium and Gallium Compounds
Gas, Natural
Gasoline and Other Motor Fuels
Gastrointestinal Agents
Gelatin
Gemstones
Genetic Engineering
Geotextiles
Geothermal Energy
Germanium and Germanium Compounds
Glass
Glass-Ceramics
Glasses, Organic-Inorganic Hybrids
Glassy Metals
Glycerol
Glycols
Gold and Gold Compounds
Grignard Reactions
Groundwater Monitoring
Growth Regulators
Gums
H
Hafnium and Hafnium Compounds
Hair Preparations
Hardness
Hazard Analysis and Risk Assessment
Heat-Exchange Technology
Heat-Resistant Polymers
Heat Stabilizers
Helium Group
Hemicellulose
Herbicides
High Performance Fibers
High Pressure Technology
High Purity Gases
High Temperature Alloys
Histamine and Histamine Antagonists
Hollow-Fiber Membranes
Holography
Hormones
Hormones, Adrenal-Cortical
Hydantoin and Its Derivatives
Hydraulic Fluids
Hydrazine and Its Derivatives
Hydrides
Hydroboration
Hydrocarbon Oxidation
Hydrocarbon Resins
Hydrocarbons
Hydrogen
Hydrogen Chloride
Hydrogen Energy
Hydrogen-Ion Activity
Hydrogen Peroxide
Hydroquinone, Resorcinol, and Catechol
Hydrothermal Processing
Hydroxybenzaldehydes
Hydroxycarboxylic Acids
Hydroxy Dicarboxylic Acids
Hypnotics, Sedatives, Anticonvulsants, and Anxiolytics
I
Imaging Technology
Imines, Cyclic
Immunoassay
Immunotherapeutic Agents
Incinerators
Inclusion Compounds
Indium and Indium Compounds
Indole
Industrial Antimicrobial Agents
Industrial Hygiene
Information Retrieval
Information Storage Materials
Infrared Technology and Raman Spectroscopy
Initiators
Inks
Inorganic High Polymers
Insect Control Technology
Insulation, Acoustic
Insulation, Electric
Insulation, Thermal
Insulin and Other Antidiabetic Agents
Integrated Circuits
Iodine and Iodine Compounds
Ion Exchange
Ion Implantation
Ionomers
Iron
Iron by Direct Reduction
Iron Compounds
Isocyanates, Organic
Isoprene
Itaconic Acid
K
Ketenes, Ketene Dimers, and Other Related Substances
Ketones
Kinetic Measurements
L
Laboratory Information Management Systems
Laminated Materials, Glass
Laminated Materials, Plastic
Lanthanides
Lasers
Latex Technology
Lead
Lead Alloys
Lead Compounds
Leather
Leather-Like Materials
Lecithin
Licensing
Light Generation
Lignin
Lignite and Brown Coal
Lime and Limestone
Liquefied Petroleum Gas
Liquid Crystalline Materials
Liquid Level Measurement
Lithium and Lithium Compounds
Lithographic Resists
Lubrication and Lubricants
Luminescent Materials
M
Machining Methods, Electrochemical
Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys
Magnesium Compounds
Magnetic Materials
Magnetic Spin Resonance
Magnetohydrodynamics
Maintenance
Maleic Anhydride, Maleic Acid, and Fumaric Acid
Malonic Acid and Derivatives
Malts and Malting
Manganese and Manganese Alloys
Manganese Compounds
Market and Marketing Research
Mass Spectrometry
Matches
Materials Reliability
Materials Standards and Specifications
Meat Products
Medical Diagnostic Reagents
Medical Imaging Technology
Membrane Technology
Memory-Enchancing Drugs
Mercury
Mercury Compounds
Metal Anodes
Metallic Coatings
Metallurgy
Metal-Matrix Composites
Metal Surface Treatments
Metal Treatments
Methacrylic Acid and Derivatives
Methacrylic Polymers
Methanol
Mica
Microbial and Viral Filtration
Microbial Polysaccharides
Microbial Transformations
Microemulsions
Microencapsulation
Microscopy
Microwave Technology
Milk and Milk Products
Mineral Nutrients
Minerals Recovery and Processing
Mixing and Blending
Molecular Modeling
Molecular Recognition
Molecular Sieves
Molybdenum and Molybdenum Alloys
Molybdenum Compounds
N
Nanotechnology
Naphthalene
Naphthalene Derivatives
Naphthenic Acids
Neuroregulators
Nickel and Nickel Alloys
Nickel Compounds
Niobium and Niobium Compounds
Nitration
Nitric Acid
Nitrides
Nitriles
Nitro Alcohols
Nitrobenzene and Nitrotoluenes
Nitrogen
Nitrogen Fixation
Nitroparaffins
N-Nitrosamines
Nomenclature
Nondestructive Evaluation
Nonlinear Optical Materials
Nonwoven Fabrics
Nuclear Reactors
Nucleic Acids
Nuts
O
Ocean Raw Materials
Odor Modification
Oils, Essential
Oil Shale
Olefin Polymers
Olefins, Higher
Opioids, Endogenous
Oxalic Acid
Oxo Process
Oxygen
Oxygen-Generation Systems
Ozone
P
Packaging
Paint
Paper
Papermaking Additives
Patents and Trade Secrets
Patents, Literature
Perchloric Acid and Perchlorates
Perfumes
Peroxides and Peroxide Compounds
Pesticides
Petroleum
Pharmaceuticals
Pharmaceuticals, Chiral
Pharmacodynamics
Phenol
Phenolic Resins
Phosgene
Phosphine and Its Derivatives
Phosphoric Acid and Phosphates
Phosphorus
Phosphorus Compounds
Photochemical Technology
Photoconductive Polymers
Photodetectors
Photography
Photovoltaic Cells
Phthalic Acids and Other Benzenepolycarboxylic Acids
Phthalocyanine Compounds
Pigment Dispersions
Pigments
Pilot Plants
Pipelines
Piping Systems
Plant Layout
Plant Location
Plant Safety
Plasma Technology
Plasticizers
Plastics Processing
Plastics Testing
Platinum-Group Metals
Platinum-Group Metals, Compounds
Plutonium and Plutonium Compounds
Polishes
Polyamides
Polycarbonates
Polyesters, Thermoplastic
Polyesters, Unsaturated
Polyethers
(Polyhydroxy)benzenes
Polyimides
Polymer Blends
Polymers
Polymers Containing Sulfur
Polymers, Environmentally Degradable
Polymethine Dyes
Polymethylbenzenes
Potassium
Potassium Compounds
Powders, Handling
Power Generation
Pressure Measurement
Printing Processes
Process Control
Process Energy Conservation
Product Liability
Propyl Alcohols
Propylene
Propylene Oxide
Prostaglandins
Prosthetic and Biomedical Devices
Protein Engineering
Proteins
Psychopharmacological Agents
Pulp
Pumps
Pyrazoles, Pyrazolines, and Pyrazolones
Pyridine and Pyridine Derivatives
Pyrotechnics
Pyrrole and Pyrrole Derivatives
Q
Quality Assurance
Quaternary Ammonium Compounds
Quinolines and Isoquinolines
Quinones
R
Radiation Curing
Radioactive Tracers
Radioisotopes
Radiopaques
Radiopharmaceuticals
Radioprotective Agents
Reactor Technology
Recreational Surfaces
Recycling
Recycling, Plastics
Refractories
Refractory Coatings
Refractory Fibers
Refrigeration
Regulatory Agencies
Reinforced Plastics
Release Agents
Renewable Energy Resources
Repellents
Research/Technology Management
Resins, Natural
Reverse Osmosis
Rhenium and Rhenium Compounds
Rheological Measurements
Roofing Materials
Rubber Chemicals
Rubber Compounding
Rubber, Natural
Rubidium and Rubidium Compounds
S
Salicylic Acid and Related Compounds
Sampling
Sealants
Sedimentation
Selenium and Selenium Compounds
Semiconductors
Semiconductors, Organic
Sensors
Separation
Separations Process Synthesis
Shape-Memory Alloys
Silica
Silicon and Silicon Alloys
Silicon Compounds
Silk
Silver and Silver Alloys
Silver Compounds
Simultaneous Heat and Mass Transfer
Size Enlargement
Size Measurement of Particles
Size Reduction
Smart Materials
Soap
Sodium and Sodium Alloys
Sodium Compounds
Soil Chemistry of Pesticides
Soil Stabilization
Solar Energy
Solders and Brazing Filler Metals
Sol-Gel Technology
Solvent Recovery, Condensation
Solvents, Industrial
Sonochemistry
Sorbic Acid
Soybeans and Other Oilseeds
Space Processing
Spectroscopy, Optical
Sprays
Stains, Industrial
Starch
Steam
Steel
Sterilization Techniques
Steroids
Stilbene Dyes
Stimulants
Strontium and Strontium Compounds
Styrene
Styrene-Butadiene Rubber
Styrene Plastics
Succinic Acid and Succinic Anhydride
Sugar
Sugar Alcohols
Sulfamic Acid and Sulfamates
Sulfolane and Sulfones
Sulfonation and Sulfation
Sulfonic Acids
Sulfoxides
Sulfur
Sulfur Compounds
Sulfur Dyes
Sulfuric Acid and Sulfur Trioxide
Sulfuric and Sulfurous Esters
Sulfurization and Sulfurchlorination
Sulfur Removal and Recovery
Supercritical Fluids
Surfactants
Surface and Interface Analysis
Sutures
Sweeteners
Syrups
T
Talc
Tall Oil
Tanks and Pressure Vessels
Tantalum and Tantalum Compounds
Tar and Pitch
Tar Sands
Tea
Technical Service
Tellurium and Tellurium Compounds
Temperature Measurement
Terpenoids
Textiles
Thallium and Thallium Compounds
Thermal Pollution
Thermodynamics
Thermoelectric Energy Conversion
Thermography
Thin Films
Thioglycolic Acid
Thiols
Thiophene and Thiophene Derivatives
Thiosulfates
Thorium and Thorium Compounds
Thyroid and Antithyroid Preparations
Tin and Tin Alloys
Tin Compounds
Tire Cord
Titanium and Titanium Alloys
Titanium Compounds
Toluene
Tool Materials
Toxicology
Trace and Residue Analysis
Transportation
Triphenylmethane and Related Dyes
Tungsten and Tungsten Alloys
Tungsten Compounds
U
Ultrafiltration
Units and Conversion Factors
Uranium and Uranium Compounds
Urea
Urethane Polymers
V
Vaccine Technology
Vacuum Technology
Vanadium and Vanadium Alloys
Vanadium Compounds
Vanillin
Veterinary Drugs
Vinegar
Vinyl Chloride
Vinylidene Chloride Monomer and Polymers
Vinyl Polymers
Vitamins
W
Waste Treatment, Hazardous Waste
Wastes, Industrial
Water
Water-Soluble Polymers
Waxes
Weighing and Proportioning
Welding
Wheat and other Cereal Grains
Wine
Wood
Wood-Based Composites and Laminates
Wool
X
Xanthates
Xanthene Dyes
X-Ray Technology
Xylenes and Ethylbenzene
Xylylene Polymers
Y
Yeasts
Z
Zinc and Zinc Alloys
Zinc Compounds
Zirconium and Zirconium Compounds
Zone Refining
Preface
The Fourth Edition of the Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology is built on the solid foundation of the previous editions and also looks forward into the 21st century. The First Edition, published between 1949 and 1956, demonstrated the enormous progress the American chemical industry made during World War II and the postwar period. The Second Edition, published between 1963 and 1972, reflected the chemical industry as an international enterprise with the interchange of experience and know-how on a global scale. The Third Edition, published between 1978 and 1984, continued the presentation of the best worldwide practices in the process technologies and emphasized topics of great concern to all scientists and engineers, ie, energy, safety, and the environment.
The Fourth Edition is in many ways an entirely new encyclopedia in a format familiar to those acquainted with the earlier editions. All of the articles in this new edition have been rewritten and updated and many new subjects have been added, reflecting changes in chemical technology since the Third Edition. The results, however, will be familiar to the users of the earlier editions: comprehensive, authoritative, accessible, lucid.
The use of SI units as well as common units, Chemical Abstracts Services Registry Numbers, and complete indexing based on automated retrieval from a machine-readable composition system continue. The Encyclopedia is an indispensable information source for all producers and users of chemical products and materials.
New subjects have been added, especially in biotechnology, computer topics, analytical techniques and instrumentation, environmental concerns, fuels and energy, inorganic and solid state chemistry, composite materials and materials science in general, and pharmaceuticals.
The Fourth Edition could not be published without the assistance of the many advisors, reviewers, chemists, and engineers who have given their advice and guidance. To all of them our thanks is due.